[转载]Crypto Law Survey
原始连接：<A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/">[url]http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/[/url]</A><BR><BR><P align=center><FONT size=+2><STRONG>Version 23.0, January 2006</STRONG></FONT><BR><STRONG>?Bert-Jaap Koops</STRONG><BR>All rights reserved. Please credit if quoting. </P>
<P align=center>Next update January 2007. </P>
<HR>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-addr.htm">Address list</A> for crypto export licenses
<LI><A href="mailto:LISTSERV@NIC.SURFNET.NL?body=SUBSCRIBE CRYPTOLAW-L">Mailing list</A> announcing updates <FONT size=-1>(to subscribe: body text: "SUBSCRIBE CRYPTOLAW-L")</FONT>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-sum.htm">Maps</A> summarizing the import, export, and domestic crypto controls around the world. Test your geographic knowledge!
<LI>For background information, see my Ph.D. thesis, <EM><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/files/page.asp?page_id=21" target=_blank>The Crypto Controversy</A>. A Key Conflict in the Information Society</EM>, which is now full-text available. How can and should governments address the law-enforcement problems of cryptography? </LI></UL>
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<P align=center><FONT size=-1><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/">home</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/files/page.asp?page_id=8">related research</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/dsls/" target=_blank>digital signature law survey</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/casi-faq.htm">crypto and self-incrimination FAQ</A></FONT> </P>
<P align=center><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-faq.htm">FAQ</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-new.htm">What's new</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-srce.htm">Sources</A> | <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#toc">Table of Contents</A> </P>
<P>This is a survey of existing and proposed laws and regulations on cryptography - systems used for protecting information against unauthorized access. Governments have long restricted export of cryptography for fear that their intelligence activities are hampered by the crypto use of foreign states and scoundrels. Since the rise of crypto use over the past decades, governments increasingly worry about criminals using cryptography to thwart law enforcement. Thus, many countries have passed laws or are considering laws to maintain law-enforcement and national-security capabilities through regulation of cryptography. </P><!--*********** BEGIN BANNER IMAGE *********--><A href="http://www.britannica.com/" target=Britannica.com></A><!--*********** ENDBANNER IMAGE *********-->
<P>This survey gives an overview of the current state of affairs, with entries per country on import/export controls, domestic laws, developments to restrict cryptography, and developments favoring crypto use. For more <STRONG>background</STRONG> on the crypto policy dilemma, see my <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/THESIS/thesis.htm">Ph.D. thesis</A><EM> The Crypto Controversy</EM> or my <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/jenc8bjk.htm">JENC8 conference presentation</A>.</P>
<P>Cryptography used for <STRONG>digital signatures</STRONG> is not covered by this survey - see Simone van der Hof's <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/simone/ds-lawsu.htm"><STRONG>Digital Signature Law Survey</STRONG></A>.</P>
<P><STRONG>See also</STRONG> (but largely outdated): Stewart Baker & Paul Hurst, <EM>The Limits of Trust </EM>(published by <A href="http://www.wkap.nl/book.htm/90-411-0635-9">Kluwer</A>; updates at <A href="http://www.steptoe.com/crypto.nsf">Steptoe</A>) from August 1998 and the extensive survey by EPIC and GILC, <A href="http://www2.epic.org/reports/crypto2000/">Cryptography and Liberty 2000</A> <FONT size=-1>(earlier versions: <A href="http://www.gilc.org/crypto/crypto-survey.html">1998</A> and <A href="http://www2.epic.org/reports/crypto1999.html">1999</A>)</FONT>. And see generally on export controls Simo-Pekka Parviainen's <A href="http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/oik/julki/pg/parviainen/">thesis</A> (particularly on the EU). </P>
<P>
<HR>
<H2>Disclaimer</H2>
<P>This survey of cryptography laws is based on several reports, information from the Internet and personal communications. I have not consulted all original texts of relevant regulations; in many cases, I have relied on the sources listed. These findings, therefore, do not pretend to be exhaustive or legally reliable.
<HR>
<P></P>
<H2>Comments and questions</H2>
<P>I thank all who have provided me with information for this survey. Please send comments, corrections, updates, and additional information to <A href="mailto:E.J.Koops@uvt.nl">E.J.Koops@uvt.nl</A> to help me keep this survey updated. If you have questions, feel free to ask, but please check the <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-faq.htm">FAQ</A> first.
<HR>
<P></P>
<H2><A name=toc>Table of Contents</A></H2>
<P>(* indicates that the item has been updated since January 2005) </P>
<P><FONT size=+1><EM>Quick index</EM></FONT><BR><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#internat">International</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#A">A</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#B">B</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#C">C</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#D">D</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#E">E</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#F">F</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#G">G</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#H">H</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#I">I</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#J">J</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#K">K</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#L">L</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#M">M</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#N">N</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#P">P</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#R">R</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#S">S</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#T">T</A> - <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#U">U</A><A name=internat> </A>- <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#V">V</A> </P>
<H3><A name=internat>International</A></H3>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls-sum.htm">graphic summary</A> of import, export, and domestic controls
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#co">Wassenaar Arrangement / COCOM</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#coe">Council of Europe</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#eu">European Union</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#oecd">OECD</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#busigov">Business Government Forum</A> </LI></UL>
<H3>Countries</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A name=A></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ar">Argentina</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#aus">Australia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#au">Austria</A>
<LI><A name=B></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ba">Bangladesh</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#by">Belarus</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#be">Belgium</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#br">Brazil</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bu">Bulgaria</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bi"></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bi" name=bur>Burma</A> (Myanmar)
<LI><A name=C></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ca">Canada</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#chl">Chile</A>
<LI><A name=prc></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#prc">People's Republic of China</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#hk">Hong Kong Special Administrative Region</A> </LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#col">Colombia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#cori">Costa Rica</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#cr">Czech republic</A>
<LI><A name=D></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#de">Denmark</A>
<LI><A name=E></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#eg">Egypt</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#es">Estonia</A>
<LI><A name=F></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#fi">Finland</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#fr">France</A>
<LI><A name=G></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ge">Germany</A> (*)
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#gh">Ghana</A>
<LI>Great Britain, see <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#U">United Kingdom</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#gr">Greece</A>
<LI><A name=H></A>Hong Kong, see at <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#prc">People's Republic of China</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#hu">Hungary</A> (*)
<LI><A name=I></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ic">Iceland</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#in">India</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#indon">Indonesia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ir">Ireland</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#is">Israel</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#it">Italy</A> (*)
<LI><A name=J></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ja">Japan</A>
<LI><A name=K></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ka">Kazakhstan</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ken">Kenya</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ky">Kyrgyzstan</A>
<LI><A name=L></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#la">Latvia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#li">Lithuania</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#lu">Luxembourg</A>
<LI><A name=M></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#mal">Malaysia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#mau">Mauritius</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#me">Mexico</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#mol">Moldova</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#mor">Morocco</A>
<LI>Myanmar, see <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/#bur">Burma</A>
<LI><A name=N></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl">The Netherlands</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_imp">Import/ export controls</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_dom">Domestic laws and regulations</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_decr">Decryption command (law enforcement)</A> (*)
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_telecom">Decryption command (telecom providers)</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_dec_sec">Decryption command and powers (security services)</A> </LI></UL>
<LI>Developments to restrict cryptography
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_1994">1994 pre-draft law</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_dec_inv">Extension of decryption command (law enforcement)</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nl_ttp">Trusted Third Party policy</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#nz">New Zealand</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#no">Norway</A>
<LI><A name=P></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#pa">Pakistan</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#pe">Peru</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#phi">Philippines</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#po">Poland</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#pg">Portugal</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#pu">Puerto Rico</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ro">Romania</A>
<LI><A name=R></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ru">Russia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#rw">Rwanda</A>
<LI><A name=S></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sau">Saudi Arabia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#si">Singapore</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sla">Slovakia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sle">Slovenia</A> (*)
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sa">South Africa</A> (*)
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sk">South Korea</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sp">Spain</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#sv">Sweden</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#su">Switzerland</A>
<LI><A name=T></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#tt">Trinidad & Tobago</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#tun">Tunisia</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#tu">Turkey</A>
<LI><A name=U></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ukr">Ukraine</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk">United Kingdom</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_Export">Import/ export controls</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_Domestic">Domestic laws and regulations</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_ripa">Regulations of Investigatory Powers Act 2000</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_eca2000">Electronic Communications Act 2000</A> (*) <FONT size=-1>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#99ecbill">1999 Electronic Communications Bill</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_rip">2000 Regulations of Investigatory Powers Bill</A></LI></UL></FONT></LI></UL>
<LI>Developments to restrict cryptography
<UL>
<LI><FONT size=-1><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#dti96">DTI 1996 paper on regulatory intent</A></FONT>
<UL>
<LI><FONT size=-1><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_pike">Red Pike</A></FONT> </LI></UL>
<LI><FONT size=-1><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_Labour">Labour policy</A> </FONT>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_consultation">1997-1998 DTI consultation process</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#uk_announce">1998 Policy announcement</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#dti99">1999 DTI consultation document</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us">United States of America</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_1">Import/ Export controls</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ear">Export Administration Regulations</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#draft-ei"><FONT size=2>1997 Draft Encryption Items Rule</FONT></A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bxa-comments"><FONT size=2>BXA seeking comments</FONT></A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_bxa_9809">July and December 1998 relaxations</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_exp9909">January 2000 relaxation</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_exp0007">October 2000 relaxation</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_exp_0206">June 2002 relaxation</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_exp_0412">December 2004 relaxation</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_personal_use">Personal use exemption</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_eea">Export Administration Act</A> </LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_exp_cases">Export case law</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#subcom">Export Council Subcommittee on Encryption</A>
<LI>Former <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#itar">International Traffic in Arms Regulations</A>
<LI>1995 statement on <A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#exp_escr">export with key escrow</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#init_relax">Initiatives to revise export controls</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bernkarn">Karn, Bernstein, and Junger cases</A>
<LI><STRONG>Congress bills</STRONG>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#lgb_bills">1996-1998 ECPA, SAFE, and Pro-CODE Acts</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#kerrey_exp">1997-1998 Secure Public Networks Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#CSEA">1997-1998 Computer Security Enhancement Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_eprivacy_exp">1998 E-PRIVACY Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#safeprotect">1999 SAFE and PROTECT Acts</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_eaa99">1999 EAA bill and National Interests Act</A> </LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#California">California resolution</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_doc">Department of Commerce study</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_nrc">National Research Council study</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_2">Laws restricting cryptography</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_wipo">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_2_cases">Case law</A> </LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_3">Developments to restrict cryptography</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ees">Escrowed Encryption Standard (Clipper I/ II)</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#kmi">Key Management Infrastructure</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#bep">Broad Encryption Policy</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ambas">Crypto Ambassador</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#report">Reporting on criminal crypto use</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#krdraft">1997 Draft Key Recovery Legislation</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_cesa99">1999 Draft Cyberspace Electronic Security Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_patriot2">2003 Draft Domestic Security Enhancement Act (Patriot II)</A>
<LI><STRONG>Congress Bills</STRONG>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#kerrey">1997-1998 Secure Public Networks Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#goodleah">1996-1998 ECPA and SAFE Acts</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_E-PRIVACY">1998 E-PRIVACY Act</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#safeprotect3">1999 SAFE and PROTECT Acts</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_2617">1999 Tax Relief and National Interests Acts</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_4">Developments favoring cryptography</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#leahburn">Leahy, Burns, and Ashcroft/Leahy bills</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#markey">Markey bill</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#us_4_nrc">National Research Council study</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#aes">Advanced Encryption Standard</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ur">Uruguay</A>
<LI><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#ven">Venezuela</A>
<LI><A name=V></A><A href="http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/cls2.htm#vi">Vietnam</A> </LI></UL>
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